The specific protest in the pictures below took place in Raleigh, North Carolina.
It is estimated that people from 185 countries took part in the protests.
A coalition of youth activists led and participated in the Global Climate Strike.
An estimated 4 million people took part in protests.
There were over 2,500 events that occurred around the world.
During this day, the Area 51 raid also took place, but to a much smaller extentNorth Carolina politician Joe Sam Queen taking pictures and talking with students inside the General Assembly
Arrival of Humans: Archaeologists do not agree on exactly when people arrived on Madagascar, but recent studies suggest that humans arrived on Madagascar between 2,000 and 1,000 years ago. The first people were from Africa and Indonesia and arrived on the west coast of the island using outrigger canoes. Humans also immigrated from Arabia and the Persian Gulf and even later, they migrated from Europe, China, and India.
Early Contract with Foreign People: Throughout the 9th century, the island was visited by Muslim traders as part of the Indian Ocean Trade Network. Merchants came from the Comoro Islands, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, and arrived on the north-west and south-east coasts of Madagascar. The first European known to visit the island was Portuguese navigator Diogo Dias in 1500, when on his way to India, he was blown off course. In the 16th century, Europeans from Portugal, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and France arrived on the shoreline of Madagascar. During the 16th and 17th centuries, they tried to establish trading settlements, but for the majority of their time on the island, they failed to establish permanent settlements. An example of this occurred in 1643, during which the French established Tolagnaro in order to control trade in the region. From 1600 to 1619, Roman Catholic Missionaries from Portugal unsuccessfully attempted to convert people on the island. There were pirates on the Indian Ocean and they used the island as a hiding place and supply source. Madagascar played an important role in facilitating the slave trade by receiving and exchanging enslaved people. Towns functioned as ports and centers of trade. People that were captured in war were taken to ports such as Mahajana as slaves and sold to European traders for guns and for other resources.
Map of Madagascar
Sakalava Kingdom: The Sakalava Kingdom was located in the western region of the island and was ruled by local chiefs who gained power and wealth through trade with nearby Arab, Persian, and Somali merchants and later with European slave traders on the Indian Ocean. Trade connected Madagascar to the rest of the world, including with East Africa, the Middle East, and India while trade produced a state system. The Sakalava dynasties originated with the Maroserana princes from the Fiherenana River in southern Madagascar. The kingdom encompassed multiple ethnic groups who were all united by a single, powerful dynasty. The founder was Andriamisara and his son Andriandahifotsy, who would later extend the kingdom. The Sakalava Kingdom began to split apart and declined during the 17th century due to internal power struggles and religious disagreement from attempts to have Islam become more important than the ancestral religions. This resulted in new, smaller chiefdoms, such as the southern kingdom of Menabe and the northern kingdom of Boina. Another factor in the decline of the dynasty occurred from 1810 onward from external warfare between the Sakalava Kingdom and the Merina Kingdom.
Betsimisaraka Kingdom: The Betsimisaraka Kingdom was located on the eastern seaboard of the island and was composed of multiple ethnic groups. Throughout its history, the kingdom interacted with European traders. By the late 17th century, the region was divided into different clans ruled by chieftains. In 1700, the Tsikoa people started to unite multiple clans and by 1720, chief of Vatomandry clan Ramanano, was elected leader of Tsikoa. Under his leadership, the Tsikoa invaded the northern area. Northern leader Ratsimilaho led the resistance against the invasion of the Tsikoa. In 1712, he defeated the Tsikoa, united the kingdom, and was elected king of Betsimisaraka. He would go on to create an alliance with southern kingdom Bezanozano, ally his kingdom with the Sakalava Kingdom through marriage, and would later extend his authority over more territories. Politically, Ratsimilaho allowed local chiefs he conquered to stay in power and in return, they would offer tributes in the form of rice, cattle, and/or slaves. Ratsimilaho died in 1754 and eventually, the kingdom became vulnerable to the growing presence of French settlers, missionaries, merchants, and slave traders on the island. By the 1830’s, Betsimisaraka kingdom was fractured and conquered by King Radama I of Merina.
Merina Kingdom: The Merina Kingdom was located in the central plateau of the island in a region called Imernia. The Merina people are a prominent ethnic group on the island. Founded toward the end of the 16th century, the kingdom was ruled by King Andriamanelo. Merina society was divided into three classes – the noble ruling class called Andriana, the commoner class called Hova, and the slave class called Andevo. During Merina military expeditions, non-Merina peoples from the Betsimisaraka and Sakalava Kingdoms were captured and enslaved for labor. The economy of the Merina kingdom was based on slave labor and territory expansion created an increase in the supply of labor. During the 18th century, the kingdom was split between four kings until in 1796, when King Andrianampoinimerina reunified Merina. King Andrianampoinimerina was able to take control of most of the island by 1824 using military strategy and he was motivated by political ambition. The kingdom would become the dominant force on the island during the 17th and 18th centuries while peaking in power in the early 19th century. King Andrianampoinimerina ruled from 1787 to 1810 and was succeeded by his son Radama I. Radama I would also continue the legacy of expanding the Merina Kingdom and conquering other Malagasy territory.
Radama I
Besides extending the kingdom, Radama I invited Europeans onto the island in which they aided his conquests and helped modernize the kingdom. Specifically, Radama I allied with Sir Robert Farquhar, who was the British governor of Mauritius. The French had previously occupied the east coast of the island and Farquhar wanted to prevent that from occuring again. To stop this from reoccurring, Farquhar supported Radama’s takeover of the east coast. He supplied him with weapons and advisors to aid in his conquests. Radama I allied with the British and in return, agreed to end the slave trade in his kingdom. Eventually, Radama I conquered most of Madagascar except for the south and a portion of the west. Radama I invited European missionaries to island to spread Christianity, and specifically, he welcomed the Protestant London Missionary Society. The missionaries converted people, opened schools, and translated the Merina language. As the Merina Kingdom spread, so did Merina culture spread over the island. King Radama I died in 1828 and was succeeded by his wife, Ranavalona I. Unlike her husband, who had policies focused on Europeanization, she was suspicious of foreigners and so she expelled the Christian missionaries, reintroduced slavery, and persecuted local Christian converts. She expelled them in part due to the Anglo-French bombardment of Toamasina in 1845. In 1835, Ranavalona I outlawed Christianity and stopped the majority of foreign trade involving Madagascar. Throughout the duration of her rule, the kingdom was consinstaly engaged in civil war. By 1850, the kingdom imported slaves from East Africa and this created a constant threat of slave uprisings.
Ranavalona I was succeeded by her son Radama II in 1861. Unlike his mother, Radama II allied with the French and restated the policy of allowing European foreigners into Madagascar, including allowing European missionaries and traders to return to the island. Continued contact with the British and French influenced local leaders of Merina to base the army off the Western style and to build schools. His reign did not last long and he was murdered in 1863. In 1864 and after the death of Radama II, head of the army Rainilaiarivony became prime minister. Throughout the reigns of Ranavalona II and Ranavalona III, Rainilaiarivony was in control of the kingdom. During his reign as prime minister, he encountered political resistance and there were several attempts to undermine his authority. In order to stay in power and keep Madagascar independent from France, he slowed modernization and allied with the British against the French. Influence from British missionaries in the 19th century resulted in the Merina upper class and government converting to Protestantism by 1869, while also suppressing local religions. Furthermore, Rainilaiarivony combined western government practices with ancient traditional religions. The Merina Kingdom now encompassed the majority of the island, except for the south and a region in the west. From 1883 to 1885, there was the First Franco-Merina/Franco-Hova War, which ended with a treaty. In 1890, Great British recognized France as the protectorate of Madagascar, while Rainilaiarivony denied subjugation under French rule. Not long after, in January of 1895, French troops landed in Majunga, Madagascar and by September 30, 1895, they had occupied the Merina capital of Antananarivo. The French exiled Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony and forced the queen to recognize the protectorate and to act as a figurehead on the throne with little actual power.
French Colonization and Rule: The French and the British spent centuries establishing small settlements on the coastal regions of the island in order to advance their commercial, religious, and political interests in Madagascar. Specifically, the French established permanent settlements near Madagascar on the islands of Sainte Marie in 1818 and on Nosy Be in 1841. Being close to the island allowed them to gain important information on inland threats, geography, and the people. A major conflict between the French and the Malagasy people was the First Franco-Malagasy/Hova War from 1883 to 1886. The war started due to Queen Ranavalona III taking away property of French on island. During the war, the French bombarded and blocked important ports on the island, including Toamasina. The war ended in treaty that paved the way to the French becoming the protectorate of Madagascar. The French also gained land, such as the northern port of Diego-Suarez (Antsiranana). In 1885, France declared a protectorate over Madagascar. Around 1890, European countries were competing for control of the continent of Africa. That same year, the British and French signed the Anglo-French agreement in which the British would recognize France’s authority over Madagascar and in return, France would recognize Great Britain as the protectorate over Zanzibar. The agreement allowed France to annex Madagascar without reproductions from the British.
In 1894, the Second Franco-Malagasy War began when the French sent soldiers into island. Specifically, they sent troops into Mahajanga and Toamasina. Many of the troops died from local disease. Queen Ranavalona III and the Merina government refused to recognize France as their protectorate, which caused the French to occupy capital in September of 1895. Two months later, in response to the French capturing the capital of Antananarivo and taking over the Merina government, began the Menalamba Rebellion. Rainilaiarivony organized the resistance against France’s takeover and fighting lasted from 1894 to 1896. Starting in central highlands, the resistance spread further into the south while lasting for three years. The war was fought against foreign invaders, missionaries, and even Malagasy people who had converted to Christianity. The uprising led the French government to replace civilian governor with military governor General Joseph-Simon Gallieni. He would remain the French governor-general of the island from 1896 to 1905. By 1896, French troops defeated the Merina resistance and abolished the monarchy. On August 6, 1896, the French officially declared Madagascar to be a French colony and the French parliament voted to annex Madagascar. The French government abolished slavery on the island and on February 27, 1897, exiled Queen Ranavalona III in order to subdue to Merina oligarchy. Certain Merina governors and leaders became French administrations and leaders in colonial Madagascar.
General Joseph-Simon Gallieni
Under the leadership of General Joseph-Simon Gallieni, troops responded violently and ended the rebellion in 1904. Even after the revolt ended, there continued to be outbreaks of violence between the French and the Malagasy people. France introduced coffee, vanilla, cloves, and tobacco to the island and had the products grown by the Malagasy people. At this time, most of the trade occurred between Madagascar and France. France did not fully takeover until 1904, which was when the French defeated the Malagasy resistance. Under their rule, the French had a problem, which was how to rule over a large, ethnically, and geographically diverse island. To combat this challenge, they used a Malagasy model pioneered by the Merina Kingdom in which they implemented several stations throughout the territory. Each station had regional leaders in charge of controlling certain areas. In order to do this more effectively, Gallieni divided island into different regions and in order to better control the Malagasy population, Gallieni divided people into pseudo ethnic groups, the policy known as politique des races. He used this divide and rule policy this without knowing the pre-existing history and culture of the island while also instituting deep social divisions and even encouraging them. Specifically, he broke up regions and separated people into groups, which included the Merina people located in the highlands and the côtier (coastal people). Such artificial ethnic groups would continue to be a part of politics on the island long after the eventual independence of Madagascar. The Merina ethnic group benefited most from French rule compared to other Malagasy ethnic groups. Furthermore, during French colonial rule, religious divisions increased due to divides with local religions and Christianity and also with divides between Protestantism and Catholicism. The French tried to undermine Protestantism influences left over from contact with the British in favor of Catholicism. Protestantism was also associated with Marina kingdom with their earlier ties to British traders. The French gave greater privileges of Catholics and Catholicism spread from these French influences.
In 1901, to make the island economically productive for the French, they increased taxes for the Malagasy people with the justification that it would help create discipline among the population while raising money. Another way the French decided to make the island more productive for themselves was in forced labor. Adult Malagasy men were forced to do labor for a certain period of the year while women and children also had to do work. Those who did not pay French taxes were imprisoned and forced to do labor. Labor varied from working on agriculture to infrastructure. French officials said that the people were doing the work for the good of the colony and claimed it was not a form of slavery, which had earlier been outlawed by the French. However, the Malagasy people viewed this as slavery.
Under French colonial rule, a small group of educated Merina men emerged as a nationalist group. Educated by Europeans, this group was based in the capital of Antananarivo and was led by Malagasy Protestant Pastor Ravelojaona. In 1913, these Hova elites formed a secret nationalist society known as Vy Vato Sakelika (VVS). They called this the Iron and Stone Ramification and eventually, the French suppressed the group because they were suspected of plotting against colonial rule. Malagasy men were forced into military service for the French in World War I and when the veterans came back, they joined the nationalist movement. Such nationalist movements gained momentum on the island during the 1920’s. They wanted labor rights, equal status, and citizenship for the Malagasy people on both a political and social level. After World War II and in the fall of 1945, the Malagasy and the French created separate electoral colleges, in which they voted to elect two Malagasy representatives to the Constituent Assembly of the Fourth Republic in Paris. The two representatives were Hova leaders, Joseph Raseta and Joseph Ravoahangy and they campaigned for Malagasy restoration in the French Assembly. In 1946, these two representatives and writer Jacques Rabemananjara created the Mouvement démocratique de la rénovation malgache, otherwise known as the Democratic Movement for Malagasy Restoration party (MDRM). The MDRM party wanted independence from France and wanted Malagasy representatives in French parliament. While the leaders of the party were of Merina descent and had an elite status on the island, its 300,000 members came from a diverse array of ethnicities and regions. The MDRM’s main rival party was smaller and was formed by the descendants of slaves and from the coastal people. This party was the Parti des déshérités de Madagascar or Party of the Disinherited of Madagascar (PADESM).
Road to Independence: In 1946, the French Fourth Republic made Madagascar into an overseas territory, which made the island a part of France, allowed the Malagasy people to gain French citizenship, and made it possible to create independent Malagasy government. During this time, the island was dealing with food shortages, ethnic tensions, and forced labor. Malagasy veterans who had fought for the French in World War I and World War II felt that they weren’t being treated fairly, which drove many of them to become nationalists. On March 29, 1947, nationalists in the east and south revolted against French on island in what would become known as the Revolt of 1947. While popular in the south, by April it had quickly spread to the capital and to the north. The French soldiers had stronger firearms than Malagasy, who used traditional weapons such as spears and bush knives. French troops bombed, tortured, and held mass executions, which mostly affected civilians. On May 6, 1947, a massacre occurred in Moramanga when French soldiers shot and killed between 120-160 people. Similar massacres occurred against in Moramanga, and also in Farangana and Manakara. French troops increased from 8,000 to 18,000 and to 30,000 by the end of July of 1947. The uprising was brought down by French reinforcements. The amount of casualties ranges from source to source, some estimated from 60,000 to 80,000, and others had 90,000 Malagasy deaths. In 1950, the French government said it was 11,342 civilian casualties, but historians do not agree on that either, with estimates ranging from 40,000 to 200,000. It also depended on how this number was counted, as many people died from malnutrition and disease due to conditions from war and lack of food. Compared to this, 180 non-Malagasy people died. The leaders responsible for organizing the revolt were never actually identified. Leaders of the MDRM, such was representatives Joseph Ravoahangy and Joseph Raseta, were accused of starting uprising. Ravoahangy, Raseta, and other MDRM leaders that had not taken part in the riots were sentenced to death. In response to the uprising, the French outlawed MDRM party. By November of 1948, the French took down the last of the Malagasy rebels. In July of 1949, the death penalties of Ravoahangy and Raseta changed from death to imprisonment.
During this period, there were still divisions among the Christian population and between Protestants and Roman Catholics. Also, there was ethnic and political divisions among the Merina people and côtiers. The Merina people had the greatest influence on the island and for the longest time, they had been the elite due to superior arms, better access to education, and access to foreign powers.
Philibert Tsiranana
In the 1950s, a new party emerged – the Democratic Social Party of Madagascar (PSD). Led by Philibert Tsiranana, the party wanted independence while keeping close ties with France. Party absorbed smaller parties consisting of coastal people. Similarly, the Congress Party for the Independence of Madagascar (AKFM) was founded on November 8, 1958. The party was founded on the belief that there must be immediate independence and a return to traditional values. It was formed by Richard Andriamanjato and Francis Sautron and consisted of Merina people. In 1958, the Malagasy people voted for autonomy in an official referendum and on October 14, 1958, the island was declared to be an autonomous state within French empire. In 1959, the first constitution of the Republic of Madagascar passed and the first democratic election took place. They elected French supported Philibert Tsiranana of the PSD party to be the first president and he was inaugurated on May 1, 1959. On June 26, 1960, Madagascar became the Republic of Madagascar and declared independence from France.
Bibliography:
Metz, Helen Chapin, and Library Of Congress. Federal Research Division. Indian Ocean: five island countries. [Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress: For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O, 1995] Pdf. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, <www.loc.gov/item/95016570/>.
Hooper, Jane. “Madagascar (Modern).” Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Oxford University Press, Mar. 2019, oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-668#acrefore-9780190277734-e-668-bibItem-0001. Accessed 23 Apr. 2019.
“The Kingdoms of Madagascar.” ER Services, Lumen Learning, courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldcivilization/chapter/the-kingdoms-of-madagascar/. Accessed 23 Apr. 2019.
Hello! My name is Emma and I love history. History is a way of explaining everything: Why do we believe certain things? Why do we act like this? How will we change in the future? History is a tool in order to understand our society, beliefs, and even ourselves.
History is able to cover a great variety of topics: science, philosophy, art, war, literature, politics, etc. In this review, I as many different periods, locations, and themes while also going over great history books.
Emma's History Review 